Crime Rates Calculation Essays - Criminology, Measurement, Rate

Crime Rates Calculation For example, the United States Census combines their population data with crime data compiled from the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting system (UCR) to produce crime rates. These rates are calculated with a constant of 100,000 and are broken down by type of crime. As described by Sacco and Kennedy in The Criminal Event, the constant in the above equation is designed so the crime rate can be expressed per c (the constant) units of exposure. The selection of the constant is largely arbitrary, but rates are traditionally expressed per 1,000 or per 100,000 units of exposure. It is, although, most important to choose a value of c so the resulting rates will be meaningful to the reader. For example, if you are calculating crime rates for a town of 10,000 people, and you choose a value of c * 10,000, the results will be expressed in terms of a population greater than the town. Consequently, the results will not be meaningful to the town residents. On the other hand, if a value of 100 were chosen, a resident reading the rates would see how many people in a group of 100 would be likely to be a victim of a given crime. In contrast to the constant, which is arbitrary, and the numerator which is provided by observations and reports, the denominator must be carefully determined for each type of crime. To determine this denominator the target population must be established. The target population can be defined as "the population we want to talk about" (Mosteller, Fienberg, and Rourke, 1983). "The usual practice is to use the total population residing within the jurisdiction in which the count of events has taken place" (Sacco and Kennedy, 1996). Although, this method does not take into account "the demographic characteristics of the population or the empirical fact that different segments of the population are involved in criminal events with different levels of frequency" (Sacco and Kennedy, 1996). Segments of the population can be created by looking at cross sections of age, sex and potential for victimization. Members of these segments may have a higher probability to being exposed to a particular crime then members of other segments. For example, people who spend a large amount of time outside their homes in the evening may have a higher potential of being a victim of a crime such as aggravated assault. If the entire population were used in the denominator, the calculated rate of aggravated assaults would be artificially high for the general population and artificially low for the segment of people who go out in the evening. In summary, when reviewing crime rates, the value of the denominator should be considered when drawing conclusions. If the denominator reflects the size of the total population residing within the measured jurisdiction, conclusions should reflect the possibility that subsets of the population may be incorrectly included in the calculated crime rate. If a subset such as males aged 16 - 30, were used in the calculations, conclusions should consider the subset of the population which may be excluded.

Free Essays on Hiroshima By John Hersy

Hiroshima Throughout everyone’s lifetime they see society face a tragedy whether they were prepared for it or not. This tragedy can teach people a lesson, teach them to be helpful, and even change their perspective on life. In John Hersey’s Hiroshima many Japanese citizens are effected by something that happened in a matter of seconds, the dropping of the first atomic bomb. In the beginning of August citizens of Hiroshima grew tired of countless air raid warnings and began to ignore them. Though on August 6th 1945, American troops dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. No one understood what had happened and how it left such a terrible outcome. Many surviving doctors decided that even though they were wounded they would help the more needy in the time of a crisis. The doctors began to pick up badly wounded patients and bring them all to one area and take care of them. They were also able to provide them with food and water in the time of need. Over a hundred thousand helpless citizens died instantly from the dropping of the bomb. John Hersey’s novel Hiroshima talks about six survivors’ stories of the dropping of the atomic and how they dealt with it. One might consider these people lucky for surviving the attack, but they became faced with many problems, physically and mentally. Many began showing symptoms of diseases while others even began to convince themselves that it was their fate to suffer. On the day of the bombing, August 6th 1945 these people carried on with their daily routine. It was 8:15AM when the bomb was dropped. A clerk in the department of the East Asia Tin Works, Miss Toshinki Sasaki was having a conversation with her colleague when the bomb was dropped. The impact of the bomb had trapped her unconscious underneath bookcases, the ceiling, and the roof. The weight of everything on top of her twisted her left leg and broke it. Miss Sasaki had laid under books, wood, and plaster f... Free Essays on Hiroshima By John Hersy Free Essays on Hiroshima By John Hersy Hiroshima Throughout everyone’s lifetime they see society face a tragedy whether they were prepared for it or not. This tragedy can teach people a lesson, teach them to be helpful, and even change their perspective on life. In John Hersey’s Hiroshima many Japanese citizens are effected by something that happened in a matter of seconds, the dropping of the first atomic bomb. In the beginning of August citizens of Hiroshima grew tired of countless air raid warnings and began to ignore them. Though on August 6th 1945, American troops dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. No one understood what had happened and how it left such a terrible outcome. Many surviving doctors decided that even though they were wounded they would help the more needy in the time of a crisis. The doctors began to pick up badly wounded patients and bring them all to one area and take care of them. They were also able to provide them with food and water in the time of need. Over a hundred thousand helpless citizens died instantly from the dropping of the bomb. John Hersey’s novel Hiroshima talks about six survivors’ stories of the dropping of the atomic and how they dealt with it. One might consider these people lucky for surviving the attack, but they became faced with many problems, physically and mentally. Many began showing symptoms of diseases while others even began to convince themselves that it was their fate to suffer. On the day of the bombing, August 6th 1945 these people carried on with their daily routine. It was 8:15AM when the bomb was dropped. A clerk in the department of the East Asia Tin Works, Miss Toshinki Sasaki was having a conversation with her colleague when the bomb was dropped. The impact of the bomb had trapped her unconscious underneath bookcases, the ceiling, and the roof. The weight of everything on top of her twisted her left leg and broke it. Miss Sasaki had laid under books, wood, and plaster f...

Health and Aging Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Health and Aging - Essay Example Institutional discrimination is when policies are implemented that go against ethnic minorities. Hence, these people have a low standard of living and lead unhealthy lives. However the health effects of discrimination may vary from person to person. A person’s age, sex and social position may influence how discrimination will affect them.Studies prove that reporting and challenging racism results in lower blood pressure when compared to bearing it. There is no concrete evidence that establish the fact that racism may have serious health effects. This article will investigate the relationship between health and racism. The sample of the study included 5196 people of Caribbean, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Chinese origin and 2867 whites who were selected using stratified random sampling. These people were interviewed in full detail. They were given a questionnaire which had questions regarding their health and any interpersonal discrimination experiences that they had. The questions included if they thought that they would be denied a job by a British employer because of their ethnic background. Their own health was self assessed by them. 12 percent of the participants reported verbal abuse in the past year. 64 percent thought that a British employer would refuse a job because of their ethnic background while 37 percent thought that a British employer would do so at least half the time. Participants who reported verbal abuse were 50 percent more likely to report their health as fair or poor as compared to those who were not abused. While respondents who thought that a British employer would refuse a job because of his ethnic background were 40 percent more likely to report fair or poor health. Females were 60 percent more likely to report bad health compared to males. The findings suggest that experience and perception of interpersonal

Human resources paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Human resources paper - Essay Example Judgements based on the individual’s status are known to have a negative impact on those individuals with high status. This is because those who perceive themselves to have higher status than others will demand to be treated differently from those with lower status. Reducing status differences among individual is a good and important way to address the issue of individual productivity based on status. I believe more god results can be found as status is seen to have an impact on job satisfaction and procedural fairness at work. Individual’s sensitiveness with regard to approval ratings means that the moment they are made to feel inferior, automatically their self-esteem becomes broken. This mostly have a greater effect on those who posses high value status. Thus reducing this phenomenon will help cushion them in the event of them being made to feel less deserving (Lyndah et al, 2009). Personality problems too can arise when high status individuals too feel badly treated- like getting angrier or not engaging in future associations with those persons who treated them unfairly. In an exclusive study, we conducted on salespersons of electronics’ shop, we asked them how they feel when their managers and supervisors treated them according to jobs. Many said they felt mistreated while others said they felt greatly undermined more than their colleagues who had higher status than they did. This in essence showed the disparities that occur when there is an acute difference in terms of status. While it has been showed by other similar studies and research, the phenomenon is inappropriate. Human resource managers need to identify with this problem and find ways of solving it, because it has a direct impact on employee work morale. It is only fair to work in an equal environment where individuals are of equal status, where

Specific ways in which the internet has changed the way businesses Essay

Specific ways in which the internet has changed the way businesses operate in the global marketplace - Essay Example This invention is no more a plot for researchers to communicate and exchange information within their own selves, but also seeks access from the innumerous chunks of available data online or from the ever-accessible super-computers placed at offshore sites. Within the global marketplace, Internet has provided a lot of incentives in the present times. Internet has brought about a lot of interest for the different segments of the society and we just cannot pinpoint any single one that represents and manifests its true purpose. In order to find out what the world of Internet, i.e. the World Wide Web (WWW) is all about, we have to examine where it all started, though in a very brief manner and the advantages and disadvantages that it gives to the different users. The same is also seen from the perspective of its news provision and the related contexts. In the global context of current affairs and news reports, the Internet has come out as an agent that has brought a change by providing t imely and up to the mark news. In the academic world, there has been a lot of help and facilitation which credits itself solely on the basis of the Internet and it is because of the Internet that we see programs like distance learning and e-studies coming up and having their rise with each passing day.

Compare The Grid And Air Gap Techniques Information Technology Essay

Compare The Grid And Air Gap Techniques Information Technology Essay The research design for this study is of a comparative quantitative, quasi-experimental nature. The rationale for this comparative study is to see what effect two different anti-scatter techniques have on image quality. The properties that make this a quasi-experimental study are manipulation of specific variables and control in experimentation and testing (Parahoo, 2006). True experimental research is characterised by three properties: manipulation, control and randomisation (Parahoo, 2006). As the researcher will not randomise any variables, this study is considered as quasi-experimental and not a true experimental study. In this research manipulation was achieved since a standard anti-scatter technique was compared to an air gap technique adapted for the projection of the hip in the lateral position. Exposure factor variables were also manipulated using an automatic exposure control (AEC). Control was maintained by testing the two techniques under the same conditions using the same research tools. Furthermore, the researcher kept control of the study by testing only the anti-scatter techniques on one specific projection. Therefore the results achieved by this study are specific to the lateral hip projection. However, the principle could be applied to other projections in order to discover which technique works better in providing good image quality in that specific projection. 3.3 Research Method 3.3.1 Background of the study The following methodology was adapted from a study carried out in the United Kingdom by Goulding (2006) who looked at the air gap and the grid technique used to image the hip laterally in the University Hospital she trained in. The study was conducted with the help of reporting radiographers in the Accident and Emergency (AE) department where they performed both grid and air gap technique as routine projections on patients. Goulding (2006) looked at image quality by attaining the hip radiographs performed with both anti scatter techniques separately. Goulding (2006) collected her data by asking reporting radiographers to comment on these radiographs. In Gouldings (2006) study the radiographs on which she based her findings and results were conducted on patients of different size and this may have lacked reliability due to different exposure factors used for each examination, different patient dose depending on patient size as well as image quality. Using a similar methodology in this study the researcher assessed image quality using a quality control phantom and an anthropomorphic phantom. In doing so the researcher will made sure that tests done on both anti-scatter techniques to assess for image quality were more precise. The methodology for this research and the tools used to measure image quality in both grid and air gap technique are explained in the following sub-sections. 3.3.2 Research tools In this study the tools discussed in this section were used to gather the data. They were used to test the anti-scatter techniques being compared and investigated in this study which will be explained further on in this chapter. Since this research looks at image quality in two anti-scatter techniques, a lead quality control phantom (PTW Normi 13) was a very important tool used to collect the data. According to Carlton Adler (2006), spatial resolution and contrast resolution are the most important properties upon which devices and techniques can be tested. The lead quality control phantom (Appendix B) is designed to perform constancy and acceptance tests on plain digital x-ray systems and is able to test image receptors for their homogeneity, spatial resolution and contrast resolution (PTW-Freiburg, 2005). However, in this research, spatial resolution and contrast resolution were the two relevant key tests for image quality. Spatial resolution is measured by counting the largest amount of line pairs per millimetre (Lp/mm) while contrast resolution is measured by the low contrast steps seen on the resultant image. The areas on the phantom that are used to measure spatial and contrast resolution are shown in Appendix B. In collecting the data, the researcher made use of an anthropomorphic pixy phantom AR10A (Appendix B) to image the hip laterally using a horizontal beam. This phantom was used so that the exposures of both grid and air gap technique performed on the quality control phantom could be done to image a hip that resembles that of a human. As the anthropomorphic phantom used had the same attenuation coefficient of a human body, it stops the radiation passing through it in the same way that a human body would. Although this study evaluates image quality in two anti-scatter techniques, the radiation given to the subject/object at each exposure using the air gap and grid technique was also recorded and compared.   The amount of radiation exposed by the tube at each exposure was also measured using a dose area product (DAP) metre. This was important in order to see how much radiation was being used at each exposure to produce an image using the grid and air gap technique. All the exposures (in this experimental testing) were made using an automatic exposure control (AEC) which is incorporated in the erect bucky in the digital x-ray system used. This device determined how much mAs was used in each exposure so that the right amount of x-ray photons irradiated the image receptor to produce an image with adequate quality. This device was used since the mAs that is used in an exposure determines how good the image quality is as well as the patient dose. Therefore when the readings using the tools mentioned were gathered from all exposures, the researcher could compare these results and identify the ideal technique and exposure that should be used in imaging the hip laterally. This technique and exposure should ideally produce a good quality image with as low a dose as possible. 3.3.3 Method The following two subsections will explain in detail how the data was collected during the experimentation on the anti scatter techniques. The researcher made sure that the tools used in the testing were kept the same to test both techniques. The same digital x-ray system was also used throughout the entire experimentation. 3.3.3.1 The Grid Technique Testing for this technique was divided in two stages. In the first stage the researcher made use of the quality control phantom (PTW Normi 13). The phantom was placed on a custom made table in contact with the erect imaging receptor. A stationary parallel grid was placed between the phantom and the receptor since this is the type of grid used in a lateral hip shoot through projection. In this technique, the object to image distance (OID) was that of 0cm since the phantom was in contact with the grid and image receptor. The source to image distance (SID) used was that of one metre (100 cm) since this is the standard SID used in such a projection in the radiology department of the local hospital. The kV used was kept constant at 75 kV and the phantom was centred to the central AEC. The light beam diaphragm was set around the contours of the quality control phantom. A further exposure was made using the same grid technique setting. However, this time the grid was removed. This was done in order to find out whether the grid was working effectively in absorbing scatter radiation, which in turn could affect image quality. The DAP metre was recorded so that the researcher could have an approximate idea of the dose given to the phantom. The second stage in testing the grid technique was done by using the anthropomorphic phantom. The researcher set up the pixy phantom AR10A with the hip in contact with the grid and receptor. The hip was centred with the central AEC and exposed. The kV and the SID were the same as the ones used in testing the quality control phantom 75kV and 100cm SID. The set-ups used to test the grid techniques using both phantoms can be found in Appendix B. 3.3.3.2 The Air Gap Technique To test for the air gap technique the researcher also divided the tests into two stages. The same quality control phantom used previously in the grid technique was also utilised in this test/experiment. The PTW Normi 13 was placed on a custom-made table. However, in this technique, an air gap between the phantom and the image receptor was applied. There were a total of six air gaps applied, varying from 10cm to 60cm. This was done in order to see which air gap was more effective in reducing scatter radiation reaching the receptor. To achieve this aim the object to image distance (OID) was increased by 10 cm after each exposure to a maximum of 60 cm. The source to object distance (SOD) was kept at 100 cm to reduce object magnification as much as possible since this may create a loss in image sharpness. The source to image distance (SID) depended on what OID was used. Therefore when an OID of 20cm was applied, the SID was that of 120cm. This was done to ensure that the distance of the source to the object remained at 100cm. In each exposure the phantom was centred to the central AEC and the light beam diaphragm was set around the contours of the quality control phantom. The researcher also made use of the DAP metre to see which air gap produced a good quality image with a reasonably low dose. This was done so that the air gap exposures could be compared with the standard grid technique. In the second stage of testing for the air gap technique the researcher also used the same anthropomorphic phantom. The setting of the technique to image the hip laterally was adapted from Gouldings (2006) study by using the same patient positioning that the author used in her study. This setting involved applying an air gap between the phantoms hip and the receptor, keeping the SOD at 100cm. A total of six exposures were also performed on the pixy phantom AR10A with the same OIDs and SIDs used to image the quality control phantom. The researcher made sure that the phantoms hip was centred with the central AEC of the erect image receptor. Both settings used to perform testing on the air gap technique can be found in Appendix B. 3.4 Data Collection The data was collected during February 2010. The data record sheets used to record the data can be found in Appendix A.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Exposure Factors The exposure factors used to produce the images in the grid and air gap technique were recorded. The kV was a constant factor while the mAs changed according to the technique used and its setting. The mAs was manipulated by means of the AED. This was done so that the amount of x-ray photons needed to produce the image and  the length of the exposure was recorded depending on the technique used.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Object to Image Distance (OID) The OID used in testing the grid and air gap technique was recorded. This was important, particularly in the application of the air gap technique. This is because the OID in the air gap technique determined the magnitude of the air gap that should be used to achieve a good quality image while keeping the radiation dose as low as possible. Therefore the researcher could see and analyse the effect on the image quality each time a specific OID was used in relation to exposure factors. In the air gap technique the SID depended on what OID was used. The researcher kept the SOD at 100cm to reduce as much as possible magnification of the resultant image.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dose Area Product (DAP) The DAP metre was recorded at each exposure for both grid and air gap techniques. Although this metre does not measure the radiation dose given to the phantoms at each exposure, it gives an indication of whether the dose would be low or high. A high DAP reading would mean that more radiation was used in the exposure and therefore the resultant patient dose may be higher. The readings from this metre for both techniques were compared in relation to image quality of the radiographs.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Signal to noise ratio (SNR) The signal to noise ratio (SNR) consists of the un-attenuated photons that have penetrated the subject without interaction (signal) and the Compton scatter and other factors that degrade image quality (noise). The SNR was used to determine how much contrast resolution an image had after each exposure. The higher the SNR the better the contrast resolution of an image (Dendy Heaton, 2006). However a high SNR also means high mAs and consequently a high patient dose. The SNR was calculated by dividing the mean pixel value by the standard deviation of the signal of each exposure. The mean pixel value and standard deviation of the signal were recorded after each exposure provided by the digital x-ray system. Therefore the equation used was: Signal to Noise ratio = mean pixel value/standard deviation (reference)  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Spatial Resolution and Contrast Resolution The spatial and contrast resolution readings were recorded by the researcher from the radiographs achieved using the quality control phantom in the grid and air gap technique. The line pairs per millimetre (Lp/mm) were measured to test for spatial resolution, while for contrast resolution the low contrast steps were counted. The data recorded was tabulated in tables 2a and 2b respectively in the data record sheet. This recorded data enabled the researcher to compare the image quality in both techniques. Unlike Goulding (2006) in this study two independent radiologists that were chosen randomly from the researcher were asked to report on image quality on all the radiographs performed on the anthropomorphic pixy phantom AR10A. Radiologists were chosen in this study since in Malta there are no reporting radiographers that report on the appendicular skeleton. The radiologists were asked to report on the images by answering a likert scale (1=very poor and 5=very good) to assess image quality. The results were tabulated in table 3 of the data record sheet. 3.5 Validity and Reliability Validity refers to the degree the research instrument used in the study measures what it is intended to measure. Therefore: Validity reflects the accuracy with which the findings reflect the phenomenon being studied (Parahoo, 2006, p.80) In this study, the researcher consulted with the medical physicist at the local hospital who was asked to assess the content validity of the research tools used to collect the data. The medical physicist considered the research tools valid since the same tools are used in the medical imaging department to test for image quality on the digital x-ray systems. As the research tools were deemed to be totally valid, the data collected to measure image quality in the grid and air gap technique can also be said to be valid. Reliability refers to how consistent an instrument is in measuring what it is intended to measure (Parahoo, 2006). To maintain the equivalence reliability of the lead quality control phantom used for assessment of image quality, two independent observers were asked to measure both spatial and contrast resolution of the two images achieved using the same exposure factors, OID and SID. The researcher tested for the reliability of the automatic exposure device used. This was done by exposing the lead phantom twice without manipulating the setting or exposure factors and the results were recorded. The spatial resolution, contrast resolution and DAP metre readings were the same in both images and so the AEC was considered reliable enough to use in the testing and data collection. 3.6 Ethical Considerations Ethics is defined by Polit Beck (2006) as a system of moral values that are designed to protect the participant from the research procedures as the researcher has professional, legal and social obligations towards the participants involved in the study. However, in this research, no human subjects were involved in the experimentation and collection of data, so there were no ethical issues regarding the exposures done on the PTW NORMI 13 phantom and the anthropomorphic phantom pixy AR10A. Permission was sought for the use of the x-ray equipment from Medical Imaging Department at the local hospital. Experimentation was performed under supervision and precautions were taken to ensure that radiation would not harm any other members of the staff or public where the study was performed. 3.7 Limitations of the study Limitations were encountered by the researcher throughout this study. The study was conducted using a quality control phantom and an anthropomorphic phantom. Although both phantoms are manufactured to mimic and represent a patient as well as to produce equivalent scatter radiation, patient size was a variable that could not be added to the study. The DAP metre was used in this study so that the researcher could have an idea of the dose being attenuated by the phantoms used. Ideally the actual patient dose should be measured but this could not be done since no human subjects were used. Expansion of this study would lead to a better understanding of the dose given to patients while comparing the air gap and grid technique for the lateral hip shoot through. This study was carried out using a digital x-ray system in the radiology department at the local hospital. Tube output and technique setup may be different when using other systems. In the radiology department, computed radiography is used to perform a lateral hip shoot through examination rather than a digital system which is what the researcher used in this study. In data analysis the readings from the quality control phantoms were interpreted by the researcher himself and not by a number of people. If more than one person interpreted the results, the results may have varied. Although these limitations are valid, they had no effect on the data collected and the results achieved. 3.8 Conclusion This chapter described the methodology and the research design of this study. The next chapter consists of presentation, analysis and discussion of the data.

Essay --

This paper with address the major themes, which run throughout The Holy Bible. There are too many themes throughout the Bible to list so this author will address only three major themes that are see in God’s Holy Word. The first theme is Jesus; the beginning and the end, the Alpha and Omega. Colossians 1:17 from the New Living Translation says it best: He existed before anything else, and he holds all creation together. Christ is also the head of the church, which is His body. He is the beginning, supreme over all who rise from the dead. So He is first in everything. For God in all His fullness was pleased to live in Christ, and through Him God reconciled everything to himself. He made peace with everything in heaven and on earth by means of Christ’s blood on the cross. The second theme that is seen in the Bible is love. The Bible says in 1 John 4:8 that God is Love; But anyone who does not love does not know God, for God is love. We see this in the greatest commandment. The last theme, which is clearly seen in nearly every book of the Bible, is the theme of salvation and/or redemption. God the Father is not only seen saving those who call on His name from certain death in the Old Testament, but also in the New Testament. In theology redemption and salvation are one in the same. â€Å"Theology is the deliverance from the power and penalty of sin; redemption† (Dictionarry.com, 2013). Jesus The first theme is Jesus. We see the prophecies of Jesus’ first and second coming in the Old Testament and then we see in the New Testament the life and teachings of the Son of God. â€Å"Then he said, ‘When I was with you before, I told you that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the prophets and in the Psalms must be fulfilled’† (Luke ... ...st through the reading of God’s Word start to understand out to look through the lens of God for our lives and others. This shows us we are in need of a relationship and not a religion. The Bible teaches us and shows us we need not to get cleaned up to come to Jesus, but come to Jesus and the Cross to get cleaned up. His arms are always wide open. C.S. Lewis once said, â€Å"The Christian does not think God will love us because we are good, but that God will make us good because He loves us† (Patheos.com, 2013). â€Å"‘This is basically what C.S. Lewis was saying. God made us good only through the atoning work of Calvary. We became righteous because of His love that was most vividly displayed on the cross as John wrote, ‘In this is love, not that we loved God but that he loved us and sent his Son to be the atoning sacrifice for our sins’† (1 John 4:10) (Patheos.com, 2013).